The economic effects of air pollution

There are numerous effects of air pollution on the ecosystem which in turn have various economic implications. In simple terminology, we can say that air pollution effects can be both direct and indirect. For instance, pollution of air primarily causes respiratory and other health hazards in people who are being directly exposed to various harmful gases. The secondary, and long run impact, would be that following the health problems, the productivity of workers might be adversely affected which in turn hamper output levels. This is how air pollution exerts an indirect effect on the overall economy.    
Information on physical and biological responses, including human health, to alternative environmental states forms the traditional scientific basis for setting environmental standards. Estimates of the benefits and costs associated with environmental regulation can be used in support of such standards by providing an additional measure of efficiency of environmental management programs. With respect to air pollution control, the Clean Air Act in foreign specifically states that regulatory decisions are to be based on human health and other physical and biological science information, not economic efficiency criteria.
Some forms of air pollution are generated primarily by anthropogenic sources which is the term used for humans. Others, such as ozone, occur both naturally and anthropogenically. The recognition of anthropogenic sources of pollutants and their biological and economic effects on managed ecosystems such as agricultural crops and forests provided impetus for air pollution control programs.
The link between Economics and natural science economic analysis can be an effective tool for comparing the costs and benefits of alternative resource or environmental management policy actions. When correctly formulated, such economic analyses can be useful in estimating the monetary values of vegetation and other receptor losses from air pollution or the welfare consequences of air pollution reductions. Economic assessments of air pollution damages typically start with biological information on observed or inferred vegetation quality and/or yield losses for alternative air quality levels. The economic loss or benefit associated with that biological response is then calculated based on the behavior of economic agents as reflected in market information (prices).
Pollutants which are, or have a potential to be, harmful to vegetation include oxides of sulfur, oxides of nitrogen, particulates and secondary products such as photochemical oxidants and acid deposition. Sulfur oxides are believed to be the primary precursor of acid rainfall and are primarily emitted from stationary sources such as utility and industrial boilers burning coal as a fuel. Both stationary and transportation-related sources, such as natural gas refineries, cars and trucks, contribute to nitrogen oxides emissions. Empirical evidence shows that anthropogenic emissions of sulfur and nitrogen oxides in the eastern United States increased significantly between 1950 and 1970. Since 1970, however, sulfur oxide emissions have declined while nitrogen oxides have continued to rise.
The cost of air pollution to the world’s most advanced economies plus India and China is estimated to be US$3.5 trillion per year in lives lost and ill health.
In OECD countries the monetary impact of death and illness due to outdoor air pollution in 2010 is estimated to have been US$1.7 trillion.
There is an urgent need to reduce levels of air pollution globally. Although air quality measures have had positive results at some locations in the world, millions of people in both developing and developed countries die prematurely every year because of long-term exposure to air pollutants. The health of many more is seriously affected which in turn drags other crucial issues those affect the economy. Most cities where outdoor air pollution is monitored do not meet the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for acceptable pollutant levels. People who live in these cities have increased risks of stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, chronic and acute respiratory diseases (including asthma) and other health problems. Indoor air pollution is another major cause of poor health and premature death, especially in developing countries.
Sources of air pollution include traffic (especially diesel vehicles), industrial sectors (from brick making to oil and gas production), power plants, cooking and heating with solid fuels (e.g. coal, wood, crop waste), forest fires and open burning of municipal waste and agricultural residues.
The health impacts of air pollution are much larger than was thought only a few years ago. The WHO estimated that in 2012 around 7 million premature deaths resulted from air pollution, more than double previous estimates. The new estimate is based on increasing knowledge of air pollution-related diseases and use of improved air quality measurements and technology. According to WHO, outdoor air pollution caused 3.7 million premature deaths in 2012. Indoor air pollution is responsible for about 4.3 million premature deaths every year.
Outdoor air quality is rapidly deteriorating in major cities in low and middle income countries (LMICs). The WHO guideline for average annual particulate matter (PM10) levels is 20 micrograms per cubic meter. For fine particles (PM2.5) the average annual level is 10 micrograms per cubic metres and 25 micrograms per cubic meter for a 24 hour period.
Air pollution levels in cities in LMICs sometimes far exceed these levels. About 3 billion people in the world cook and heat their homes with coal and biomass. Air pollutant emissions need to be reduced not only from these inefficient energy systems, but also from agricultural waste incineration, forest fires and charcoal production. In Africa, due to the rapid growth of its cities and megacities, a large increase in air pollutant emissions from burning of fossil fuels and traditional biomass use for energy services is expected in the near future.
Underscoring the fact that air pollution exerts adverse economic effects that cripple economic growth attainment, it is extremely important to adopt effective restrictive measures to mitigate air pollution. It is not only that the economy of the country that is responsible for pollution is being affected solely. Rather, it’s a global phenomenon and this justifies impositions of both domestic and international clean air acts.
The writers are freelancers

 

The economic effects of air pollution

There are numerous effects of air pollution on the ecosystem which in turn have various economic implications. In simple terminology, we can say that air pollution effects can be both direct and indirect. For instance, pollution of air primarily causes respiratory and other health hazards in people who are being directly exposed to various harmful gases. The secondary, and long run impact, would be that following the health problems, the productivity of workers might be adversely affected which in turn hamper output levels. This is how air pollution exerts an indirect effect on the overall economy. Information on physical and biological responses, including human health, to alternative environmental states forms the traditional scientific basis for setting environmental standards. Estimates of the benefits and costs associated with environmental regulation can be used in support of such standards by providing an additional measure of efficiency of environmental management programs. With respect to air pollution control, the Clean Air Act in foreign specifically states that regulatory decisions are to be based on human health and other physical and biological science information, not economic efficiency criteria. Some forms of air pollution are generated primarily by anthropogenic sources which is the term used for humans. Others, such as ozone, occur both naturally and anthropogenically. The recognition of anthropogenic sources of pollutants and their biological and economic effects on managed ecosystems such as agricultural crops and forests provided impetus for air pollution control programs. The link between Economics and natural science economic analysis can be an effective tool for comparing the costs and benefits of alternative resource or environmental management policy actions. When correctly formulated, such economic analyses can be useful in estimating the monetary values of vegetation and other receptor losses from air pollution or the welfare consequences of air pollution reductions. Economic assessments of air pollution damages typically start with biological information on observed or inferred vegetation quality and/or yield losses for alternative air quality levels. The economic loss or benefit associated with that biological response is then calculated based on the behavior of economic agents as reflected in market information (prices). Pollutants which are, or have a potential to be, harmful to vegetation include oxides of sulfur, oxides of nitrogen, particulates and secondary products such as photochemical oxidants and acid deposition. Sulfur oxides are believed to be the primary precursor of acid rainfall and are primarily emitted from stationary sources such as utility and industrial boilers burning coal as a fuel. Both stationary and transportation-related sources, such as natural gas refineries, cars and trucks, contribute to nitrogen oxides emissions. Empirical evidence shows that anthropogenic emissions of sulfur and nitrogen oxides in the eastern United States increased significantly between 1950 and 1970. Since 1970, however, sulfur oxide emissions have declined while nitrogen oxides have continued to rise. The cost of air pollution to the worlds most advanced economies plus India and China is estimated to be US$3.5 trillion per year in lives lost and ill health. In OECD countries the monetary impact of death and illness due to outdoor air pollution in 2010 is estimated to have been US$1.7 trillion. There is an urgent need to reduce levels of air pollution globally. Although air quality measures have had positive results at some locations in the world, millions of people in both developing and developed countries die prematurely every year because of long-term exposure to air pollutants. The health of many more is seriously affected which in turn drags other crucial issues those affect the economy. Most cities where outdoor air pollution is monitored do not meet the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for acceptable pollutant levels. People who live in these cities have increased risks of stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, chronic and acute respiratory diseases (including asthma) and other health problems. Indoor air pollution is another major cause of poor health and premature death, especially in developing countries. Sources of air pollution include traffic (especially diesel vehicles), industrial sectors (from brick making to oil and gas production), power plants, cooking and heating with solid fuels (e.g. coal, wood, crop waste), forest fires and open burning of municipal waste and agricultural residues. The health impacts of air pollution are much larger than was thought only a few years ago. The WHO estimated that in 2012 around 7 million premature deaths resulted from air pollution, more than double previous estimates. The new estimate is based on increasing knowledge of air pollution-related diseases and use of improved air quality measurements and technology. According to WHO, outdoor air pollution caused 3.7 million premature deaths in 2012. Indoor air pollution is responsible for about 4.3 million premature deaths every year. Outdoor air quality is rapidly deteriorating in major cities in low and middle income countries (LMICs). The WHO guideline for average annual particulate matter (PM10) levels is 20 micrograms per cubic meter. For fine particles (PM2.5) the average annual level is 10 micrograms per cubic metres and 25 micrograms per cubic meter for a 24 hour period. Air pollution levels in cities in LMICs sometimes far exceed these levels. About 3 billion people in the world cook and heat their homes with coal and biomass. Air pollutant emissions need to be reduced not only from these inefficient energy systems, but also from agricultural waste incineration, forest fires and charcoal production. In Africa, due to the rapid growth of its cities and megacities, a large increase in air pollutant emissions from burning of fossil fuels and traditional biomass use for energy services is expected in the near future. Underscoring the fact that air pollution exerts adverse economic effects that cripple economic growth attainment, it is extremely important to adopt effective restrictive measures to mitigate air pollution. It is not only that the economy of the country that is responsible for pollution is being affected solely. Rather, its a global phenomenon and this justifies impositions of both domestic and international clean air acts. The writers are freelancers